Clinical studies

Learn how clinical tests testing is performed, how to prepare, and how to interpret results together with a clinician.

Endometrial cytology: what it shows, when it's prescribed, and how it differs from a biopsy

A cytological examination of the endometrium is the study of cells of the inner lining of the uterus, obtained directly from the uterine cavity using a special instrument.

Cytological examination of lymph nodes: what it shows and when one puncture is not enough

Lymph node cytology is the examination of individual cells obtained from a lymph node by fine needle aspiration.

Lung cytology: what it shows, how it's performed, and when a biopsy is needed

Lung cytology is the analysis of individual cells obtained from sputum, bronchial washings, smear impressions, bronchoalveolar lavage material, fine-needle aspiration of a lung nodule or mediastinal lymph node.

Skin cytology: what it shows, how it's performed, and when a biopsy is needed

Cytological examination of the skin is a method in which the doctor evaluates not the entire tissue fragment, but individual cells obtained from the surface of the lesion, from the bottom of a fresh blister, from an erosion, ulcer, or from material from a fine-needle aspiration of the node.

Sputum cytology: what the analysis shows and how to interpret the results

Sputum cytology is a microscopic examination of cells that have entered the sputum from the bronchi and lung tissue.

Dark-field microscopy: principle, capabilities, limitations and modern role in medicine

Dark-field microscopy is an optical technique in which the specimen appears bright against a nearly black background.

Cytological blood test: what a blood smear shows and how it is interpreted

In everyday laboratory and clinical practice, cytological blood testing most often refers to the microscopic evaluation of a peripheral blood smear.

Cytological examination of the mammary gland: when it is prescribed, how it is performed, and how to interpret the results

A breast cytology examination is the microscopic evaluation of cells and fluid obtained from a suspicious breast lesion, a cyst, a suspicious axillary lymph node, or, in certain situations, nipple discharge.

Urine cytology: what the test shows and how to understand the results

Urine cytology is a laboratory test in which a specialist uses a microscope to examine cells that have entered the urine from the urinary tract.

Pap test (Papanicolaou test): what it shows, how it's performed, when it's needed, and how to interpret the results

A Pap test, or Papanicolaou test, is a cytological examination of cells in the cervix.

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