Child's motor activity: patterns of formation

The development of the motor sphere of the child is one of the brightest and most surprising in terms of the richness of the transformations of the phenomena of age development - from the seeming impellent limitations and fetishability of the fetus and the newborn to the highest levels of sports technology, music and art. It is with the help of motor acts that a person realizes his transforming influence on nature, technology and culture, but at the same time motor activity itself is a powerful stimulus for individual development.

Already in the prenatal period, when the motor activity, it would seem, does not matter much, there is an extremely rapid formation of motor reflexes. At present, it is known that the motor activity of the fetus is one of its fundamental physiological characteristics that ensure normal intrauterine development and childbirth. Thus, irritation of proprioceptors and skin receptors ensures the timely occurrence of a specific intrauterine posture, which is the pose of the smallest volume with minimal internal pressure on the walls of the uterus. Thanks to this, the pregnancy wears out even at a fairly large fetal size. Labyrinth motor reflexes of the fetus contribute to a strict retention of the position, optimal for future births, i.e. Head presentation. Intrauterine respiratory and swallowing movements help swallow amniotic fluid, which is an important component of fetal nutrition, a factor in the formation of the ferment-forming capacity of the mucous membrane of the gastrointestinal tract and the provision of an amniotic fluid exchange. Finally, a whole series of motor reflexes, formed in utero, is of great help to the fetus and to its mother at a critical period for them - in childbirth. Reflex rotations of the head, trunk, pushing away from the bottom of the uterus - all this, of course, contributes to the smooth flow of labor. Immediately after delivery, the hypertonicity of the flexor of the extremities is very significant for maintaining sufficient heat production, activating the activity of the respiratory and vasomotor centers. In all subsequent age periods, the motor activity of the child, along with its sense organs, with the whole sum of external impressions and emotions, constitutes that general stimulating complex, under the influence of which the central nervous system, and especially the brain, develops further. Finally, the motor load is a direct activator of skeletal growth and maturation, it integrates the metabolism in cells with the function of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems, ensuring the formation of high physical efficiency of the child and maximizing the economization of all its physiological functions. This is, in the opinion of the most prominent domestic specialist in the age physiology of prof. IA Arshavsky, the guarantee of health and longevity of a person.

It is extremely important for the doctor that the formation of various motor reflexes and possibilities at an early age is carried out in strict correlation with the maturation of certain nerve structures and connections. Therefore, the spectrum of the child's movements is very clearly indicative of the degree of his neurological development. In the first years of motor activity a child can serve as one of the reliable criteria for his biological age. The delay of motor, and therefore of neurological development and, especially, the reverse dynamics of it always indicate the presence of severe disturbances in nutrition, metabolism or chronic diseases in a child. Therefore, every pediatrician's record of the results of examining a healthy or sick child should contain information about motor functions.

The importance of motor activity for the formation of health and physical performance explains all the great attention paid by the health authorities and the government to the development of children's physical culture and sports.

The most primitive form of the motor reaction is the contraction of the muscle with its mechanical stimulation. The fetus can receive such a reduction starting from the 5th-6th week of intrauterine development. Very soon, from the 7th week, the formation of the reflex arcs of the spinal cord begins. In these terms, you can already get muscle contractions in response to skin irritation. The earliest such reflexogenic zone is the skin of the perioral region, and by the 11th-12th week of intrauterine development the motor reflexes are caused practically from the entire surface of the skin. Further complication of the regulation of motor activity includes the formation of elements located above the spinal cord, ie, various subcortical formations and the cerebral cortex. The next level of organization of movements NA Bernshteyn called spinal level. The development and inclusion of the red core function provides the regulation of the muscle tone and motor activity of the trunk. Already in the second half of pregnancy, a number of subcortical structures of the motor analysor are formed, which integrate the activity of the extrapyramidal system. This level, according to NA Bernshtein, is called the talapumpidal. The entire motor arsenal of the fetus and the baby of the first 3 ~ 5 months of life can be attributed to the motor skills of this level. It includes all rudimentary reflexes, forming positonic reflexes and chaotic or spontaneous movements of a newborn child.

The next stage of development is the inclusion in the regulation of the streaky body with its various connections, including the cortex of the brain. At this stage, the formation of a pyramidal system begins. This level of organization of movements is called pyramid-striary. Movements of this level include all the major large voluntary movements that are formed in the 1-2 years of life. This is grasping, and turning, and crawling, and running. The improvement of these movements continues for many years.

The highest level of organization of movements, and inherent almost exclusively to man, called N. A. Bernstein the level of objective action is a purely cortical level. By localization in the cortex, it can be called parietal-premotor. The development of this level of organization of movements in the child can be traced by observing the improvement of finger movements from the first finger grasping at the age of 10-11 months to the improvement of the child, and then of the adult in writing, drawing, knitting, playing the violin, surgical technique and other large human arts.

Improvement of motor activity is associated not only with the formation of appropriate regulatory links, but also largely depends on the frequency of actions, that is, from motor education or training. Self-learning of the child to movement also is a powerful stimulus of development of nervous regulation of movements. What determines the level of mobility of the child? There are several reasons.

For a newborn child and a child of the first weeks of life, the movements are a natural component of emotional arousal. As a rule, this is a reflection of the negative attitude and a signal for parents about the need to satisfy his will, eliminating hunger, thirst, wet or unsuccessfully put diapers, and maybe even pain. The further distribution of motor activity largely reflects the formation of sleep and wakefulness. If a newborn has a relatively low motor activity, then its distribution during the day and in connection with wakefulness and sleep is virtually uniform. Beginning from the 2-3 rd month of life, there is a general increase in motor activity, and a much more contrasting distribution of it with a maximum concentration on active wakefulness. Some physiologists even believe that there is some daily activity minimum of movements, and if the child could not get it during wakefulness, then his sleep will be restless and rich movements. If we quantitatively characterize the ratios of the child's mobility during waking and falling asleep, then in the first 4 months the ratios will be 1: 1, in the second 4 months of the first year - this is 1.7: 1, and in the last months of the first year - 3.3: 1 . At the same time, the overall motor activity significantly increases.

During the first year of life, several peaks of motor activity were noted. They fall on the 3-4th month, 7-8th month and 11-12th month of the first year. The appearance of these peaks is due to the formation of new opportunities for the sensory or motor sphere. The first peak is a complex of animation and joy for the first experience of communicating with adults, the second peak is the formation of binocular vision and activation of crawling (mastering the space), the third is the beginning of walking. This principle of sensorimotor connections is preserved in the future.

The general mobility of a child is largely determined by its constitutional features, degree of liveliness or temperament. It is necessary to observe children lazy and inactive from the first days of life, and a group of super-moving children with increased nervous excitability (hypermotor, hyperkinetic children) is also very numerous. Extreme forms can be caused by various diseases. Many acute and chronic diseases of children are reflected in motor activity, and often biphasic - initially increase anxiety and mobility, later they are reduced.

Motor and reflexes of the intrauterine period

The physician should be familiar with the motility and reflexes of the pre-natal period due to the fact that at the birth of immature and premature babies for them it is necessary to create special conditions for nursing and supervision.

Fetal heart contractions are probably the first motor reaction of normal intrauterine development. They occur in the third week with a total length of the fetus of about 4 mm. Tactile sensitivity reactions with muscle reactions are observed from 6-8 weeks. Gradually formed zones of extremely high tactile sensitivity, which already from 12 weeks will be the perioral zone, especially the lips, then the skin of the genital organs and the inner surface of the thighs, palms and feet.

Spontaneous vermiform movements of the fetus are noted from the 10th to 12th week, opening the mouth by lowering the lower jaw - from the 14th week.

Approximately at the same time, the elements of respiratory movements begin to be noted. Independent regular breathing occurs much later - from the 25-27th week. Generalized motor reactions to shaking, a sharp change in the position of the body of a pregnant woman can be noted from the 11th to the 13th week, swallowing movements with swallowing amniotic fluid - from the 20-22th week. Already from the 18th to the 20th week, finger sucking is detected in photographs and film shots, but rather pronounced movements of the sucking reflex are formed only by the 25-27th week. Approximately from this timeframe, the fetus or newborn immature child can sneeze, cough, hiccup and emit a low cry. Also, after the 5th-6th month of intrauterine development, the intrauterine posture is especially well maintained, and complex movements of support and stabilization of the head presentation occur. Starting from 14-17 weeks pregnant woman begins to feel the individual movements of the fetus. After 28-30 weeks the fetus reacts with movements to sharp unexpected sounds, but after several repetitions it gets used and ceases to react.

Postnatal development of motor and child reflexes

Motor activity of a newborn child consists of the following main components: maintenance of muscle tone, chaotic spontaneous movements and unconditioned reflexes, or automatisms.

The increased tonus of limb flexors in a newborn is associated with the action of gravity (irritation of proprioceptors) and massive impulses from sensitive skin (temperature and humidity, mechanical pressure). In a healthy newborn baby, the arms are bent at the elbows, and the hips and knees are pulled to the stomach. Attempting to unbend limbs encounters some resistance.

Chaotic spontaneous movements, also called choreic, athetose-like, impulsive movements, are characterized by a relatively slow rhythm, asymmetry, but two-sidedness, connection with large joints. Often, the head is tilted back and torso is extended. These movements are not of a reflex character and, in the opinion of most physiologists, reflect the periodicity of the functional state of the subcortical centers, and their "recharge". The study of the structure of spontaneous movements made it possible to find in them elements resembling certain locomotion acts, such as overtaking, climbing, crawling, swimming. Some consider it possible to develop and consolidate these primitive movements as a base for early learning movements, in particular swimming. There is no doubt that spontaneous movements of a newborn are normal and necessary for him a phenomenon reflecting the state of health. IA Arshavskii notes the positive effect of spontaneous movements on respiration, blood circulation and heat production. It is not excluded that spontaneous movements are the primary motor arsenal from which targeted arbitrary movements will subsequently be selected.

Reflexes of a newborn child can be divided into 3 categories: persistent lifelong automatisms, transient rudimentary reflexes, reflecting specific conditions of the level of development of the motor analyzer and subsequently disappearing, and reflexes, or automatisms only appearing and therefore not always detectable immediately after birth.

The first group of reflexes includes such as corneal, conjunctival, pharyngeal, swallowing, tendon reflexes of the extremities, orbital-palpebral, or superciliary, reflex.

The second group includes the following reflexes:

• spinal segmental automatisms - grasping reflex, Moro reflex, supports, automatic similar, crawling, reflexes of Talent, Perez;
• oral segmental automatisms - sucking, searching, proboscis and palm-oral reflexes;
• myeloencephalic positonic reflexes - labyrinthine tonic reflex, asymmetric cervical tonic reflex, symmetrical cervical tonic reflex.

The third group includes mezencephalic adjusting automatisms - adjusting labyrinth reflexes, simple cervical and trunk setting reflexes, chain neck and trunk set-up reflexes.

During the whole year, the activity of reflexes of the second group decays. They are present in the child no more than 3-5 months. Simultaneously, from the 2nd month of life, the formation of the third group's reflexes begins. Change in the picture of reflex activity is associated with the gradual maturation of striatal and cortical motor regulation. Its development begins with changes in movements in the cranial muscle groups and then spreads to the underlying parts of the body. Therefore, the disappearance of physiological hypertonia, and the emergence of the first arbitrary movements first occurs in the upper limbs.

The result of the development of motor activity in the first year of life is the onset of finger grasping of objects, manipulation with objects and movement in space (crawling, gliding on the buttocks and walking). After the first year, all types of movements are improved. The final development of walking on fully straightened legs with manipulated handles applies only to 3-5 years. Even longer the technique of running, jumping, various sports games is being improved. The development of perfect forms of movement requires persistent repetition, training, which in early childhood and preschool age occur in connection with the natural restless mobility of children. This mobility is also necessary for the physical, neurological and functional as a whole maturation of the child, like proper nutrition, and natural gas exchange.

The average time and possible limits of the development of motor acts in children 1 year of age

Movement or skill	Average time	Time Boundaries
Smile	5 weeks	3-8 weeks
The walk	7 »	4-11 »
Holding the head	3 months	2-4 months
Directional movement of handles	4 "	2.5-5.5> "
Inverting	5 "	3.5-6.5 »
Seat	6 »	4.8-8.0 »
Crawl	7 »	5-9 »
Arbitrary grasping	8"	5.75-10.25 "
Getting up	9"	6-11 »
Steps with support	9.5 »	6,5-12,5 »
Standing alone	10.5 "	8-13 »
Walking alone	11.75 "	9-14 »

Development of grasping

In the first weeks of life, the child is more adapted to grasping with the mouth. When touching any object to the skin in the face area, he will turn his head and stretch his lips until he grabs the object with his lips and begins to suck. Oral touch and cognition of objects is an essential moment of the whole motor activity of the child of the first months of life. However, due to the presence of a developed grasping reflex, the newborn can firmly hold in his hand the object or toy embedded in it. This reflex has nothing to do with the subsequent formation of grasping.

The first differentiated movements of the handles occur on the 2nd - the beginning of the 3rd month of life. This approach of the hands to the eyes and nose, rubbing them, and a little later - lifting the handles over the face and looking at them.

From 3-3 1/2 months begins palpation of their hands, fingering the blankets and the edges of the diaper.

The incentive for the reaction of grasping is the emergence of interest in the toy, the desire to possess it. In 3 months at the sight of the toy there is simply joy and general motor excitement, sometimes the impulse of the whole body. From 12-13 weeks the child starts to stretch the handles to the toy and sometimes, reaching out to it, immediately compresses the brush into a fist and already pushes the toy with the fist, not grabbing it. When you put a toy in your hand, it will hold it for a long time, pull it into your mouth, and then throw it.

Only from the 5th month of life, hand extension and grasping of the subject begins to resemble similar movements of an adult with a number of features indicative of the immaturity of the motor act. First of all, this is an abundance of accompanying irrational movements. The grasping movements of this period are accompanied by parallel movements of the second handle, so that one can speak of a two-handed grip. Finally, during grasping movements occur in the legs and in the trunk, often opening the mouth. The grasping hand makes many unnecessary, seeking movements, grasping is carried out exclusively with the palm of the hand, ie, the fingers are bent so as to press the toy to the palm of the hand. In the future, there is an improvement in the interaction of the motor and visual analyzers, which leads to greater targeting of the grasping arm by 7-8 months.

From 9-10 months there is a scissorlike grasping by closing the big and II-III fingers along the entire length.

From the age of 12-13 months, the grasping proceeds as a tick-like process using distal phalanges of the first and second fingers. During the entire period of childhood, various friendly irrational movements gradually fade away. The most persistent are the friendly movements of the second hand. Only prolonged training contributes to their disappearance. In most people, the complete suppression of movements with the second hand is recorded only to 20 years. The obvious and persistent right-handedness of grasping and taking takes place only after 4 years.

[1], [2]

Moving in space

A. Peiper identifies four consecutive forms of movement: crawling on the stomach, crawling on all fours, gliding on the buttocks and vertical walking. Other authors have more forms. This is due to the great individuality of the development of forms of movement in connection with the peculiarities of the child's constitution (excitability, mobility), individual motor experience, collective motor experience of peers in the same arena or in the same room, the conditions for stimulating motor education. However, the differences relate mainly to the intermediate stages - crawling on all fours and sliding on the buttocks. The initial and final phases in all children are quite close.

The beginning of this chain of motor development is a reversal, and from the back to the abdomen. A newborn child can turn from back to back with gravity and spontaneous motor activity. Further development of overturning is associated with the formation of mesencephalic adjusting reflexes. A few weeks after birth, the spinal extensor phase begins: the infant turns its head to the side and back. The shoulder of that side, where the back of the head turns, rises. Gradually, the whole spine is involved in the rotation. With further development, the arm and leg of the parietal side rise and move to the jaw side. First, the shoulders turn, and then the pelvis, and the child is on his side. Such motor automatism develops gradually from 3 1 / 2-4 months of life, usually immediately after the disappearance of the flexor hypertension of the lower limbs. This automatism reaches its highest development by 6-7 months. After this, the development of an arbitrary reversal occurs.

The position on the abdomen with an elevated shoulder girdle and head, a look looking forward, is the optimal starting posture for the development of crawling. If this is joined by a lively interest in a toy that is located very close, then an attempt to move forward necessarily arises. It is possible that there is a desire to grab the object not only with your hand, but with your mouth. If the player does not capture the toy by stretching his hands forward, then gradually pulling the trunk behind his hands and re-throwing his hands forward. The lack of alternation of the throwing of hands, promiscuous movements of the legs at the beginning often result either by turning on the side, or even in a backward slip.

Adequately mature crawl with cross movement of hands and feet is set to 7-8 months of life. Relatively quickly after this, there is a lifting of the abdomen, and then the child already prefers to move around in space only on all fours. Gliding on the buttocks with a leg underneath is formed in those cases when there is a particularly smooth, slippery surface of the arena, and is not peculiar to all children.

The beginning of walking is the standing of the child in a crib or an arena with stepping along the back of the bed or a barrier, this is observed about 8-9 months. Later the child steps over with the support of him for two hands, for one hand and, finally, about a year makes the first independent steps. There are significant variations in the timing of walking. Individual children can already run at 10-11 months, others begin to walk about 1 1/2 years. The formation of a mature gait is carried out for several more years. The one-year-old child goes wide apart legs, the feet are directed to the sides, the legs are bent both in the hip and knee joints, the spine in the upper part is bent anteriorly, in the remaining sections are bent back. The handles are first pulled forward to shorten the distance, then balanced to maintain balance or bent and pressed against the chest for a fall insurance. After 1 1/2 years, the legs are straightened and the child walks almost without bending them. Improvement of the basic characteristics and structure of walking occurs up to 10 years. By the age of four, the structure of each individual step is formed, while the step system still remains unstable and unstable. The walking process is not automated. From 4 to 7 years a series of steps is being improved, but the relationship between the pace of walking and the length of the step can be absent until 7 years. Only by the age of 8-10 the indicators of the structure of step and walking are approaching adults.